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This shows that the gateway was set to the remote PPP server (198.62.1.1), as well as showing the other interfaces running on my computer. There are two ppp0 entries. The first shows the destination as a host (UH). The second shows the destination as a gateway (UG). All addresses that can t be resolved on the local LAN are directed to the gateway address. Check that the name servers are set If you are able to ping a remote computer by IP address, but are not able to resolve any addresses, your DNS servers may not be set correctly. As root user from a Terminal window, open the /etc/resolv.conf file and check that there are lines identifying one or more DNS servers in this file. These should be supplied to you by your ISP. Here are some examples (the numbers are fictitious): nameserver 111.11.11.111 nameserver 222.22.22.222 Check the chap-secrets or pap-secrets files PPP supports two authentication protocols in Red Hat Linux: Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) and Password Authentication Protocol (PAP). Here is what each protocol does to authenticate: CHAP The server sends the client a challenge packet (which includes the server name). The client sends back a response that includes its name and a value that combines the secret and the challenge. The client name and secret are stored in your /etc/ppp/chap-secrets file. PAP The client sends its name and a password (clear text) for authentication. The client name and secret are stored in your /etc/ppp/pap-secrets file. By default, PPP in Red Hat Linux will authenticate if the server requests it, unless it has no secrets to share. If it has no secrets, PPP (or, more specifically, the PPP daemon pppd) will refuse authentication. It is likely that if you look in these files you will find the user names and passwords you provided when you set up your PPP connection (Red Hat assumes that you may be using CHAP or PAP authentication). The chap-secrets and pap-secrets file formats are the same. Each authentication line can contain the client name, the server name, and the secret. The server name can be represented by an * (to allow this secret to be used to authenticate any server). This is useful if you don t know what the server name will be. Also, remember that case is significant (that is, Myserver is not the same as myserver). Tip For more details about PAP and CHAP in PPP for Linux, see the pppd man page (type man pppd). In any case, here s an example of what a chap-secrets file may look like: # Secrets for authentication using CHAP # client server secret IP addresses 0300584919390921 * JckMLt4CwZiYo03/bkNTpLmU * Caution The pap-secrets and chap-secrets files should not be accessible by anyone but the root user. Anyone gaining this information could use it to access your Internet account. (To close permission, type chmod 600 /etc/ppp/*-secrets.) You need to obtain your own client name and secret from your ISP. The ones shown here are just examples. Look at the ifcfg-ppp0 file The ifcg-ppp0 file (/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-ppp0) contains options that are passed to the pppd daemon for features that are negotiated with the remote PPP server. Most of the problems that can occur with
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Type Dialup.kdelnk. 3. Click the icon and select an icon to represent the application; then click OK (There is one called kppp that you can use.) 4. Click the Execute tab and then type kppp into the Execute box. Click OK. 5. An icon called Dialup appears on your KDE desktop. Click it to open the kppp window. Then select your ISP from the Connect box and click Connect to start your PPP connection. From this point forward, icons will appear on your desktop that you can select to immediately connect to your ISP over the dial-up connection you configured. Both GNOME and KDE support drag-and-drop, so you can drag the dial-up icon to the desktop to make it even more easily available. Checking your PPP connection To debug your PPP connection or simply to better understand how it works, you can run through the steps below. They will help you understand where information is being stored and how tools can be used to track this information. Check that your PPP interface is working One way to do this is with the ping command. From the Terminal window, type ping along with any Internet address you know. For example: $ ping www.handsonhistory.com PING handsonhistory.com (198.60.22.8) from 192.168.0.43 : 56(84) bytes of data. 64 bytes from handsonhistory.com (198.60.22.8): icmp_seq=0 ttl=240 time=120 msec 64 bytes from handsonhistory.com (198.60.22.8): icmp_seq=1 ttl=240 time=116 msec 64 bytes from handsonhistory.com (198.60.22.8): icmp_seq=2 ttl=240 time=120 msec — www.handsonhistory.com ping statistics — 4 packets transmitted, 3 packets received, 25% packet loss round-trip min/avg/max/mdev = 116.816/119.277/120.807/1.779 ms Press Ctrl+C to end the ping command. The lines above show the responses from http://www.handsonhistory.com/. It sent back packets from the IP address 198.60.22.8 in response to each one it received. You can see the sequence of packets (icmp_seq) and the time it took for each response (in milliseconds). If you receive packets in return, you will know two things: first, that your connection is working, and second, that your name to address translation (from the DNS addresses in /etc/resolv.conf) is working. Check the default route Check that the default route is set using the route -n command. # /sbin/route -n Kernel IP routing table Destination Gateway Genmask Flags Metric Ref Use Iface 198.62.1.1 0.0.0.0 255.255.255.255 UH 0 0 0 ppp0 10.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 U 0 0 0 eth0 127.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 U 0 0 0 lo 0.0.0.0 198.62.1.1 0.0.0.0 UG 0 0 0 ppp0
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Click the Execute tab. If you want to run a special command or script before or at the point of connection or disconnection, you can add the full path to the command or script in the appropriate box. (You will typically leave these blank.) 8. Click the Accounting tab. If you need to account for the amount of traffic being received or sent over this connection, you can click the Enable Accounting button on this tab. You must then select the Available rules, based on your country and type of service. This feature is more useful outside of the United States, where billing for Internet service is done differently. 9. Click OK. The new account should appear in the Account Setup box. 10. Click the Device tab. Select the modem device that will be used for the connection. Your modem may already be linked to the /dev/modem device (whether it is on COM1 or COM2). To specifically set the modem to one of those ports, you could select /dev/ttyS0 for COM1, or select /dev/ttyS1 for COM2 (and so on). 11. Click OK to exit from the kppp Configuration window. 12. From the main kppp window (which should still be on your screen), make sure that your new connection type appears in the Connect to window. The first time you try the connection, click the Show Log Window box. Type the login ID and password for your ISP account. 13. Click Connect. The Login Script Debug window will step through the process of initializing the modem, dialing, and making the PPP connection. If all goes well, you should be able to start browsing the Internet. If the connection fails, skip to the Checking your PPP connection section for information on hunting down the problem. Launching your PPP connection After you have a working PPP connection configured, you can set up that connection to launch easily from the desktop. Here s how: From the GNOME desktop: 1. Right-click Panel and then choose Panel Add to Panel Applet Network RH PPP Dialer from the GNOME menu. When the Choose pop-up window appears, click the interface you want to use and then click OK. 2. You can either start the connection now or not. In either case, after you finish Step 1, an icon appears on the panel that you can click to immediately connect to the ISP (click the green button). From the KDE desktop: 1. Right-click the desktop and choose Create New Link to Application. 2.
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Figure 16-2: Configure PPP connections from KDE using the kppp Configuration window. 1. From the kppp Configuration window (Accounts tab), click New. A pop-up window asks if you want to use the wizard to create a new account. 2. Click Dialog Setup. A New Account window appears. 3. From the Dial tab on the New Account window, add the following information: Connection Name Enter any name you choose to identify the connection. Typically, the name would identify your ISP. Phone Number Click on the Add button, enter the telephone number of the ISP s modem pool, and click on OK. Authentication Determine from your ISP the type of authentication that is used to establish the connection. Many ISPs use a PAP or CHAP type of authentication (which are used with Windows NT and other types of servers), while universities and other sites where UNIX and Linux servers are used tend to use Terminal and Script-based authentication. Customize pppd arguments Click on this button, type an argument you want to add, click on Add, repeat for additional arguments (optional), and click on OK. These arguments are passed to the pppd daemon (which establishes and maintains your PPP connections). Some of these arguments are described later in the section “Checking your PPP connection.” See the pppd manual page (type man pppd) for information on available arguments. 4. Click the IP tab. Chances are that the ISP will use Dynamic IP addresses. If the ISP gave you a Static IP address, click the Static IP Address box and type in the address and netmask the ISP gave you. You can also click on the “Autoconfigure hostname…” box to have your host name automatically assigned from your ISP. 5. Click the DNS tab. This is where you enter your domain name and the IP address for the DNS server (which is used to resolve Internet host/domain names into IP addresses). If DNS servers are not assigned dynamically (which they probably are), you will typically be given two DNS servers to enter (a primary and a backup). 6. Click the Login Script tab. This is a somewhat advanced feature. It can be used if your dial-up ISP connection doesn’t do the standard PAP, CHAP, or terminal login ways of setting up a connection. If that is the case, you can set up a custom “chat” script here that defines what you expect to receive from the remote side and what you will send in response. (When you try your connection a few steps later, you will be able to watch this chat take place.) 7.
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Select the modem you want from the list of modems found (there will probably only be one). Click “Keep this modem,” and then click Next to continue. A window appears, asking for your account name and telephone number. 4. Enter the account name (any name to identify the account) and the telephone number of the ISP you want to dial into. Then click Next to continue. (The optional Prefix is in case you need to dial a 9 or some other number to get an outside dial tone before dialing.) The window asks for your user account name and password. 5. Type in the account name and password. You should have received this information from your ISP. The ISP may have called the account name a Login ID or similar name. Click Next to continue. The Other Options window appears. 6. Select Normal ISP (unless your ISP happens to appear in the listing, in which case select it instead). Then click Next to continue. The Create the account window appears. 7. If all the information looks correct, click Finish (otherwise, click the Back button to change any information). The completed connection type appears in the Internet Connections window. 8. To test your connection, select your new PPP account and click the Debug button. The Internet dialer starts up and dials your ISP. If everything is working properly, you should see your login and password accepted and the PPP connection completed. Try opening Netscape Communicator and see if you can access a Web site on the Internet. If this doesn t work the first time, don t be discouraged. There are many things to check to get your dial-up PPP connection working. Skip ahead to the Checking your PPP connection section. Creating a dial-up connection from KDE To configure a dial-up PPP connection from the KDE desktop, you can use the kppp window. To open that window, choose Internet Internet Dialer from the KDE menu. Then click the Setup button. A kppp Configuration window appears, as shown in Figure 16-2. Note Instead of using the Internet Dialer (kppp) window, you can use the Dialup Configuration window described in the section “Creating a dial-up connection from GNOME.” Open the Dialup Configuration window from the KDE desktop by selecting Internet Dialup Configuration from the KDE menu.
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Although one side must dial out while the other side must receive the call to create a PPP connection over a modem, after the connection is established, information can flow in both directions. For the sake of clarity, however, I refer to the computer placing the call as the client and the computer receiving the call as the server. To simplify the process of configuring PPP (and other network interfaces), Red Hat Linux provides a dial-up configuration tool for both the GNOME and KDE interfaces. Those interfaces are, respectively, as follows: Dialup Configuration Tool From the GNOME desktop menu, choose Programs Internet Dialup Configuration. The Internet Connection window that appears lets you configure and test your dial-up PPP connection. Kppp Window From the KDE desktop menu, choose Internet Internet Dialer. This runs the kppp command. From the kppp window you can set up a PPP dial-up connection and launch it. Before you begin either of the two dial-up procedures, physically connect your modem to your computer, plug it in, and connect it to your telephone line. If you have an internal modem, you will probably see a telephone port on the back of your computer that you need to connect. After the modem is connected, reboot Red Hat Linux so it can automatically detect and configure your modem. Creating a dial-up connection from GNOME To configure dial-up networking from the GNOME desktop, you should use the Dialup Configuration window. To start it, choose Programs Internet Dialup Configuration from the GNOME menu. A connection wizard appears to help you configure your PPP dial-up connection, as shown in Figure 16-1. Figure 16-1: The Dialup Configuration Tool steps you through a PPP Internet connection. Follow the procedure below from the first Dialup Configuration Tool window to configure your dial-up connection. 1. From the Add New Internet Connection window that appears, click Next to continue. If you do not have a modem configured, you are asked if you want to configure one. 2. Click Next to configure a modem. A pop-up window searches your computer for a modem. If it finds your modem, its location will be filled in on the Enter a modem window. Otherwise, you will have to enter the location of the modem yourself. 3.
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Telephone number This telephone number gives you access to the modem (or pool of modems) at the ISP. If it is a national ISP, make sure that you get a local telephone number (otherwise, you will rack up long distance fees on top of your ISP fees). Account name and password This information is used to verify that you have an Internet account with the ISP. This is typically used when you connect to Red Hat Linux or other UNIX system. (When connecting to an NT server, the account name may be referred to as a system name.) An IP number Most ISPs use Dynamic IP numbers, which means that you are assigned an IP number temporarily when you are connected. Your ISP assigns a permanent IP number if it uses Static IP addresses. If your computer or all the computers on your LAN need to have a more permanent presence on the network, you may be given one Static IP number or a set of Static IP numbers to use. DNS IP numbers When you use a Web browser, FTP utility, or other Internet program to request a service from a computer on the network, you need a way to translate that name (for example, whatever.com) into an Internet address. Your computer will do this by querying a Domain Name System (DNS) server. Your ISP should give you at least one, and possibly two or three, IP addresses for a primary (and possibly secondary and tertiary) DNS server. PAP or CHAP secrets You may need a PAP id or CHAP id and a secret, instead of a login and password when connecting to a Windows NT system. These features are used with authentication on Microsoft operating systems, as well as other systems. Red Hat Linux and other UNIX servers don t typically use this type of authentication, although they support PAP and CHAP on the client side. If Red Hat Linux didn t support PAP or CHAP, you wouldn t be able to connect to a great many ISPs. Besides providing an Internet connection, your ISP typically also provides services for use with your Internet connection. Although you don t need this information to create your connection, you will need it soon afterward to configure these useful services. Here is some information you should acquire: Mail server If your ISP is providing you with an e-mail account, you need to know the address of the mail server, the type of mail service (such as Post Office Protocol or POP), and the authentication password for the mail server in order to get your e-mail. News server To be able to participate in newsgroups, the ISP may provide you with the hostname of a news server. If the server requires you to log on, you will also need a password. After you have gathered this information, you are ready to set up your connection to the Internet. To configure Red Hat Linux to connect to your ISP, follow the PPP procedure described below. Setting up dial-up PPP Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is used to create Internet Protocol (IP) connections over serial lines. Most often, the serial connection is established over a modem; however, it will also work over serial cables (null modem cables) or digital lines (including ISDN and DSL digital media). PPP is a common way to connect an individual computer or LAN to a TCP/IP Wide Area Network (such as the Internet).
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Routing Knowing the IP address of the computer you want to reach is one thing; being able to reach that IP address is another. Even if you connect your computers on a LAN, to have full connectivity to the Internet there must be at least one node (that is, a computer or dedicated device) through which you can route messages that are destined for locations outside your LAN. That is the job of a router. A router is a device that has interfaces to at least two networks and is able to route network traffic between the two networks. In our example of a small business that has a LAN that it wants to connect to the Internet, the router would have a connection and IP address on the LAN, as well as a connection and IP address to a network that provides access to the Internet. Red Hat Linux can act as a router by connecting to two LANs or by connecting to a LAN and a modem (to dial-up the Internet). Alternatively, you can purchase a dedicated router, such as Cisco ADSL routers, that can exclusively perform routing between your LAN and the Internet or network service provider. Tip Unlike regular dial-up modems, xDSL modems have several different standards that are not all compatible. Before purchasing a xDSL modem, check with your ISP. If your ISP supports xDSL, it can tell you the exact models of xDSL modems you can use to get xDSL service. Proxies Instead of having direct access to the Internet (as you do with routing), you can have indirect access via the computers on your LAN by setting up a proxy server. With a proxy server, you don t have to configure and secure every computer on the LAN for Internet access. When, for example, a client computer tries to access the Internet from a Web browser, the request goes to the proxy server. The proxy server then makes that request to the Internet. Using a proxy server, Internet access is fairly easy to set up and quite secure to use. Red Hat Linux can be configured as a proxy server (as described later in this chapter). Using Dial-up Connections to the Internet Most individuals and even many small businesses that need to connect to the Internet do so using modems and telephone lines. Your modem connects to a serial port (COM1, COM2, and so on) on your computer and then into a telephone wall jack. Then your computer dials a modem at your Internet Service Provider or business that has a connection to the Internet. The two most common protocols for making dial-up connections to the Internet (or other TCP/IP network) are Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) and Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP). Of the two, PPP is more popular and more reliable. SLIP, however, has been around longer. This section describes how to use PPP protocol to connect to the Internet. Getting information To establish a PPP connection, you need to get some information from the administrator of the network that you are connecting to. This is either your Internet Service Provider (ISP) when you sign up for Internet service or the person who walks around carrying cables, a cellular phone, and a beeper where you work (when a network goes down, these people are in demand!). Here is the kind of information you need to set up your PPP connection: PPP or SLIP Does the ISP require SLIP or PPP protocols to connect to it? In this book, I describe how to configure PPP.
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that controls the domain is handsonhistory. Within that domain is a subdomain called crafts. The last name (baskets) refers to a particular computer within that second-level domain. From other hosts in the second-level domain, the host can be referred to simply as baskets. From the Internet, you would refer to it as baskets.crafts.handsonhistory.com. Hostnames and IP addresses In the early days of the Internet, every known host computer name and address was collected into a file called HOSTS.TXT and distributed throughout the Internet. This quickly became cumbersome because of the size of the list and the constant changes being made to it. The solution was to distribute the responsibility for resolving hostnames and addresses to many DNS servers throughout the Internet. To make the domain names friendly, the names contain no network addresses, routes, or other information needed to deliver messages. Instead, each computer must rely on some method to translate domain names and hostnames into IP addresses. The DNS server is the primary method of resolving the names to addresses. If you request a service from a computer using a fully qualified domain name (including all domains and subdomains), it will go to the DNS server to resolve that name into an IP address. If you have a private LAN or other network, you can keep your own list of hostnames and IP addresses. For the computers you work with all the time, it s easier to type baskets than baskets.crafts.handsonhistory.com. There are a couple of ways (besides DNS) that your computer can resolve the IP address for computers for which you give only the hostname: Check the /etc/hosts file. In your computer s /etc/hosts file, you can place the names and IP addresses for the computers on your local network. In this way, your computer doesn t need to query the DNS server to get the address (which may not be there anyway if you are on a private network). Check specified domains. You can specify that if the hostname requested doesn t include a fully qualified domain name and the hostname is not in your /etc/hosts file, then your computer should check certain specified domain names. On your Red Hat Linux system, the decisions on how to try to resolve hostnames to IP addresses are taken from the /etc/resolv.conf file. That file specifies your local domain, an alternative list of domains, and the location of one or more DNS servers. Here is an example of an /etc/resolv.conf file: domain crafts.handsonhistory.com search crafts.handsonhistory.com handsonhistory.com nameserver 10.0.0.10 nameserver 10.0.0.12 In this example, the local domain is crafts.handsonhistory.com. If you try to contact a host by giving only its hostname (with no domain name), your computer can check in both crafts.handsonhistory.com and handsonhistory.com domains to find the host. If you give the fully qualified domain name, it can contact the name servers (first 10.0.0.10 and then 10.0.0.12) to resolve the address. (You can specify up to three name servers that your computer will query in order until the address is resolved.) Tip Your resolver knows to check your /etc/hosts file first because of the contents of the /etc/host.conf and /etc/nsswitch files. You can change that behavior by modifying those files. See the resolv.conf man page for further information.
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elementary schools, as well as to individuals within a geographical region of the United States. To facilitate the entry of other countries to the Internet, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has defined a set of two-letter codes that are assigned to each country. Within each country, there are naming authorities that are responsible for organizing the subdomains. Some subdomains are organized by categories, while others are structured by geographic location. Tip Several RFCs (Request for Comments) define the domain name system. RFC 1034 covers domain name concepts and facilities. RFC 1035 is a technical description of how DNS works. RFC 1480 describes the “us” domain. For a more general description of DNS, there is RFC 1591. Common top-level domain names Of the generic TLDs in use today, several are used throughout the world, while two are available only in the United States. Here are descriptions of common TLDs: com Businesses, corporations, and other commercial organizations fall into this TLD. As the Internet has grown into an important tool for commerce, domains in this TLD have grown at a dramatic rate. edu Colleges and universities fall under this TLD. Although it was originally intended for all educational institutions, two-year colleges, high schools, and elementary schools are now organized by location under country codes (such as US in the United States). gov This TLD is restricted to U.S. federal government locations. Local government sites are expected to fall under the us domain. int This domain includes international databases and organizations created by international treaties. mil U.S. military organizations fall under this domain. net Computer network providers fall under this domain. org A variety of organizations that are neither governmental nor commercial in nature fall under this catchall TLD. Domain name formation As noted earlier, domain names are hierarchical, which means there can be subdomains beneath second-level domains, as well as host computers. (Second-level domains are the names directly below the TLDs that are assigned to individual people and organizations.) Each subdomain is separated by a dot (.), starting with the top-level domain on the right and with the second-level domain and each subsequent subdomain appearing to the left. Here is an example of a fully qualified domain name for a host: baskets.crafts.handsonhistory.com In this example, the top-level domain is .com. The second-level domain name assigned to the organization
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